Fallacies are errors in reasoning that render arguments to be illegitimate or weak.
Fallacies often appear in everyday conversation, the news, and even some academic writings. Often people make fallacious arguments as though they are actually proven facts, but it’s important to remember that this is not the case.
In fact, some arguments, though they may use factual reasons, can still lead to conclusions that do not logically follow from the reasons given. Others use premises that are based on falsehoods (stereotypes, assumptions, opinions, etc,).
Why do you think it’s important to have a good understanding of logical fallacies?
Reasons to avoid logical fallacies in conversation:
- Logical fallacies are wrong and, simply put, dishonest if you use them knowingly.
- They take away from the strength of your argument.
- The use of logical fallacies can make those you communicate with feel that you do not consider them to be very intelligent.
(William R. Smalzer, Write to Be Read: Reading, Reflection, and Writing, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2005)
- “Whether examining or writing arguments, make sure you detect logical fallacies that weaken arguments. Use evidence to support claims and validate information—this will make you appear credible and create trust in the minds of your audience.”
(Karen A. Wink, Rhetorical Strategies for Composition: Cracking an Academic Code. Rowman & Littlefield, 2016)
Where might you find some widely-accepted, yet fallacious, arguments?
Hint: The News!
Some common fallacies:
- Appeal to Popularity: Arguing that a claim must be true merely because a substantial number of people believe it. [example: ‘Of course war is justified. Everyone believes that it’s justified.”]
- Appeal to Tradition: Arguing that a claim must be true just because it’s part of a tradition. [example: “Acupuncture has been used for a thousand years in China. It must work.”]
- Appeal to Ignorance: Arguing that a lack of evidence proves something. In one type of this fallacy, the problem arises by thinking that a claim must be true because it hasn’t been shown to be false. (Can’t prove anything with a lack of evidence) [example: ‘No one has shown that ghosts aren’t real, so they must be real.”]
- Burden of proof: Weight of evidence or argument required by multiples sides in a debate or disagreement. It’s important we prove claims beyond a reasonable doubt. What does this mean?
- Appeal to Emotion: Use of emotions as premises in an argument in order to persuade someone of a conclusion. [example: “You should hire me for this job because I am the best candidate. Also, if I don’t get this job my wife will leave me, and we’ve been together for over 30 years…”]
- Appeal to Pity: persuasion through pity
- Apple Polishing: persuasion through flattery
- Scare Tactics: persuasion through scaring them or evoking fear
- Red Herring: Deliberate raising of an issue during an argument that is totally unrelated to the conclusion. Other claims that couple the main claim are mere distractions. [example: “The legislators should vote for three-strikes-and-you’re-out crime control measure. I’m telling you, crime is a terrible thing when it happens to you. It causes death, pain, fear. And I wouldn’t want to wish these things on anyone.”]
- Straw Man: The distorting, weakening, or oversimplifying of someone’s position so it can be more easily attacked or refuted. [example: “President Kennedy is opposed to the military spending bill, saying that it’s too costly. Why does he always want to slash everything to the bone? He wants a pint-sized military that couldn’t fight off a crazed band of terrorists, let alone a rogue nation.”]
- Two Wrongs Make a Right: Arguing that you’re doing something morally wrong is justified because someone else has done the same thing. [example: “I have a clear conscious. I stole his laptop because he stole mine a couple of months ago.”]
- Slippery Slope: Arguing, without good reason, that taking a particular step will inevitably lead to a further, undesirable step. [example: “If you redefine marriage to include gay people, then suddenly we’ll be allowing people to marry their pets.”]
- Hasty Generalization: The drawing of a conclusion about a target group based on an inadequate sample size. [example: “The only male professor I had this year was a chauvinist pig. All male professors must be chauvinist pigs.”]
- Faulty Analogy: An argument in which things being compared are not sufficiently similar in relevant ways. [example: Dogs are warm-blooded, nurse their young, and give birth to puppies. Humans are warm-blooded and nurse their young. Therefore, they also give birth to puppies.]
Discovering Philosophy 